Separation of Powers in the U.S. Constitution Essay

Separation of Powers in the U.S. Constitution - Essay Example Congress is the only body with legislation powers in the United States. Nondelegation doctrine illustrates that Congress cannot delegate this law making duty, to any other organization. Supreme Court illustrated in Clinton v. City of New York (1998) that Congress cannot delegate to the president the â€Å"line-item veto† because of guarantees in the Constitution. Executive power and authority is vested and practiced by the President of United States. The president is the Commander in Chief of the United States Army and Navy, has authority to make appointments to office and treaties, the militia of states during service, receives ambassadors, receives public ministers, and ensures the faithful execution of the laws. Congress writes legislation to guide executive officials in the performance of the duties in accordance with the law. The Supreme Court in, INS v. Chadha (1983), illustrated that all legislative powers are vested in Congress; for bills to become law, they must be ap proved by the President (Kilman & Costello 158). Judicial power entails the ability of determining controversies and cases. This power is practiced by the Supreme Court, and junior courts initiated by Congress. It is not clearly illustrated, in the constitution, the superiority of any government branch over others. But, James Madison illustrated in Federalist 51 that each branch has different abilities to defend itself against actions of others; for instance, in the republican government, the predominant authority if legislative.

Maureen Down, Tea Obreht and Stephanie Elizondo Essay

Maureen Down, Tea Obreht and Stephanie Elizondo - Essay Example The third reading by Griest is set in Moscow, Beijing and Havana. These three places are defined by diversity of practices in relation to cultural and social aspects, all of which the author presents her experiences across the all the three places. In all the readings, the visits made by the writers are characterized by local customs practices, all of which are uniquely undertaken in every city highlighted in the readings. In other words, the three readings depict a lot of local customs, an outstanding similarity in all the three readings. Saudi Arabia is slowly opening its social and economic doors to the international world. Amid this progress, there are limitations that her social context has to overcome to allow this process. The Saudi Arabian society has previously observed locked tourism doors, but Maureen Dowd presents the new phase in Saudi Arabia in relation to tourism pursuits. In so doing, the persons to whom these doors are open are limited, and only highly knowledgeable fellows are welcome in Saudi Arabia. The most significant account that cannot fail to be captured in Saudi Arabia is misogyny. Being an Islamic state, Saudi Arabia has a notable disregard for women. In other words, they are inferior to men, and thus highly submissive. The cultural and social context of Saudi Arabia is characterized by enormous and rich local customs that are unique to every single social setting observed here. The dominant local custom is the position of women in the cultural, social, economic and political aspects. There are legal provisions that restrict women from engaging in certain activities that cut across the aforementioned aspects. Practices that women engage in are highly monitored, and any deviations from the norms are highly punishable. Maureen Dowd (55) quotes, â€Å"A Saudi woman can’t even report harassment by a man without having a mahram, or male guardian, by her side.† Amid the integration of international practices in the social cont ext of Saudi Arabia, this local custom remains uniquely observed, and few women, if not none are up to violate this custom. "Twilight of the vampires" by Tea Obreht presents an account of a vampire-like society, where there seems to be a hunt of undead real people. In a nutshell, the reading is an account of unfortunate events that befall Tea Obreht in daily quests and interests in life. The Serbia and Belgrade simultaneous happenings pose a bad omen to what the author, the mother, the grandmother and the journalist are supposed to partake. Amid the devil-like interventions that Tea Obreht experiences, the spirit to press on remains vibrant. The underlying dilemma in "Twilight of the vampires" provides an opportunity to note the customs and practices undertaken in the Balkans society. The most notable local custom in this environment is the one realized from Tea Obreht (19) quote, â€Å"Whereas garlic, holy water, and crucifixes are commonly accepted apotropaic across the Balkans, scissors under the bed are also popular, as is the black-handled knife buried in the doorstep to cleave incoming evil in half.† Cities highlighted in the "Twilight of the vampires" to practice this custom as a way of dealing with incoming devils or bad luck. Stephanie Elizondo Griest’s text is rich in cultural diversity. The text presents and

Tool for Orientation for Four Generations Essay Example for Free

Tool for Orientation for Four Generations Essay In the current clinical setting, it is often common to find that evidence-based practice (EBP) is not being implemented. There are a number of causative factors that can be attributed to this observation. Some analysts have suggested that personal differences may be hindering implementation of EBP. It is therefore important to look into the validity of this factor with special emphasis given to age differences in the clinical setting. The question to be considered is whether or not there is an evidence-based tool available to meet the needs of all four generations of learners. The EBT tool needs to implement clinical references and other reviews as well as a case by case analysis over past and present generations to help form a small basis for future generational use of the EBT tool. In forming continually controlled studies one would be able to obtain current and ongoing evidentiary guideliens in which to more accurately determine the generational differences to determine if there is in fact any influences of with utilizing the use of EBT. Population of Interest In order to foster a productive and feasible atmosphere in clinical practice, it is imperative for members of the organization to appreciate and respect differences among the generations. This means that gender, racial and ethnic backgrounds need to be understood and accepted. The latter categories of diversity have been discussed at length in nursing practice and most people understand them well. On the other hand, the issue of intergenerational differences also can be problematic if nurses do not understand it properly. In order to place this matter in context, it is essential to review the historical background of these different generations. The population of interest includes four distinct generations (Cordinez, 2002). There are basically four generations that may be found within the clinical situation; these are Veterans (born between 1922 and 1945), Baby Boomers (born between 1945 – 1960), Generation X (born between 1960 – 1980), and lastly the Millennial Generation (Born after 1980). All these generations underwent different experiences that subsequently shaped their respective professional and personal values. The performance value of each of these generations differ. For example, it is well known that the Baby Boomers generation was much ado about peace and the different associated behaviors related to drug and alcohol use, thus inhibiting their generation compared to the more productive performance of the later generations. The first generation under consideration is the Veteran generation born during the Great Depression and the Second World War. This generation grew up under tough times but during their adulthood, the country’s economy began flourishing. Because of these matters, The Veteran Generation realized that hard work can be rewarded and that authority ought to be respected. Therefore, it can be said that the values most revered by this generation are authority, loyalty, and respect. The second generation of nurses in the field today is the Baby Boom generation. Members of this group were born during a time of economic prosperity that was still characterized by some traditional values. This generation grew up around two-parent households in which one parent was the breadwinner. However, there were still a number of issues confronting them. They began challenging status quo and did not respect authority. According to Baby Boomers, real heroes are those ones with the courage to change the system. This generation had a lot room for growth within the nursing profession owing to the fact that economic times were relatively good. This generation is not typically conversant with technology. Intervention EBP implementation in most health institutions is a recent development. Since the population of interest is multigenerational, it is imperative to find out whether their generational background could have led to learning differences within the EBT tool. In order to attribute the lack of implementation of EBP to this issue, it is essential to eliminate other causative factors. Problems causing the potential failure to learn may be unique to each generation. It is important to design a nursing orientation program that empowers all generations of learners to implement evidence-based practice. Comparison of interest After examination of the historical backgrounds of these groups, one can now understand the differences between the groups may be influenced by their past. Two of the four generations of nurses have different perspectives on authority, workplace structures, technology, and evidence based practice (Spitzer, 2001). This can be a problem because organizations have changed dramatically over the past few years. Most health institutions now respect team-based approaches requiring individuals from different organizational levels to work together. This challenges traditional organizational structures in which the older generation was highly respected. The current view is to utilize evidence-based practice. Further contradicting the education of the older generation, the advent of technology has flipped organizational relationships. Baby boomers who had grown up with a deep respect for authority now highly depend on younger nurses to explain to them the essentials of computer technology. This has created renewed tensions between the generations. Despite the dramatic change in organizational structures, nurse’s mental attitudes still remain relatively stagnant and this has hampered implementation of evidence-based practice. Some nurses have failed to recognize where behavior patterns originate from and thus misunderstand colleagues from other generations. For instance, Baby Boomers usually think of Generation Xers as being highly unreliable or disloyal. On the other hand, the latter generation regards Baby Boomers tendency to remain with one employer as a failure to cease new opportunities. There are different work relations approaches between the generations. Outcomes Evidence-based practice in most health institutions may not be properly implemented because a substantial number of clinics fail to prepare their nurses through practical training. This means that nurses may be aware of the concept through the literature but do not have the ability to implement it in practice. Implementing this as a required teaching throughout all the health profession will enable nurses to be able to have additional tools available so that they may have more information in which to perform their duties better. In other health institutions, nurses lack infrastructural support from hospital administrations accustomed to conventional methods. Such administrations fail to shift their clinical practice making it difficult for particular nurses to do the same. EBP is failing due to lack of proper orientation in these health institutions. Nurses lack a straight-forward way in which they can carry it out within a certain clinical setting. Consequently, the methods may end up failing. There is little literature to link EBP with diversity issues let alone generational differences (Hicks Hicks, 1999). Conclusion In order for health organizations to flourish, there is a need to acknowledge differences between various generations of nurses. However, when it comes to evidence-based practice, other issues take greater precedence over generation differences. Instead, clinics need to look for ways in which they can boost administrative support, offer proper orientation and training to nurses. Personally, as nurse liaison for new employees, I am empowered to make changes by collecting and making available comprehensive, ongoing, and readily accessible EBP information needed to provide optimal care. At the very least, I can assist in providing staff with an orientation tool which incorporates the EBP process to insure and promote positive outcomes. References Cordinez, J. (2002). Recruitment, retention and management of generation X. Health Care Management Journal, 47, 4, 237-249. Hicks, R. Hicks, K. (1999). Boomers, Xers and other strangers Location: New York: Harper Collins. Raines, C. (2003). Connecting generations. CA: Crisp Publishers. Spitzer, R. (2001). A new world and new generation to come: Seminars for Nurse Managers, 9. 1367. The problem of interest in PICO question format. (5 points) 4/5 Presented a question, but did not identify PICO components. I DON’T KNOW WHAT THESE COMPONENTS ARE AND ALSO DID NOT ADDRESS THE OTHER TWO GENERATIONS COMMENTED ON BY YOUR INSTRUCTOR AS I DID NOT KNOW WHERE YOU WANTED TO GO WITH THAT. 1. A brief description of the patient population/disease, intervention, comparison, and outcome. (10 points) 9/10 Presented thorough description of two generations. What about the remaining two generations? If they are being excluded, tell the reader the rationale for this decision. Also, the outcome you intend to achieve is increased use of EBP. That was not clearly articulated in the outcomes section.

The Concept Of Doubt Philosophy Essay

The Concept Of Doubt Philosophy Essay About 4th century BC when the anti-vedic Movements like Buddhism etc has started, The exponents of the vedic Philosophy and religion keenly felt the need of showing greater accommodation to rationalistic modes of thought. The rationalistic sources available for vedics religion and philosophy has to be pooled together and kept fit for defensive and offensive use. And Hence the Nyaya with epistemological exegesis and the Physics and logic of the anti- vedic vaishesika were put together. The doctrines of these two schools were systematised and redacted. Hence it was the time when the Nyaya-vasishesika had merged together, now all we are studying in nyaya is the Physics of vaishesika and Logic and epistemology of Nyaya. Though there are some differences in respect to Physical laws of in Nyaya and Vaishesika they have so many common points, hence they were merged together. The Vasihesika and Nyaya are not restricted to their scope and aim to logic in a narrow sense, With the material of the Vaishesika and its Physics along with Nyaya forms a complete system of epistemology and logic combined to some extent with psychology, Physics, ethics, ontology, religion. Such a mixed composition of Indian philosophical system is due not to any lack of appreciation of differences of value in different things, but rather to cultural outlook of India, Which is dominated by an intense desire to synthesize all the departments of knowledge in a scheme of progressive realization of truths and the universe we live in. The scheme of Nyayas external relation, its dialectic machinery, its theory of truth and error, its creationistic view of causation, its thought measuring devices and precise formulas form its ever-spread never fading foliage. Its chief boast is its Logical dialectic machinery, which the believers and the heretics, The astikas and the nastikas alike, cannot do without. In Indian Philospohy it is said that whoever knows the Nyaya, knows the pramana,is a pramanavith, i.e a philosopher in a strict sense Nyaya signifying logic is etymologically identical with Avyaya the five membered syllogisms. Nyaya defined in many ways like the Hetu-Vidya or Hetu-sastra means the science of causes, Anvikishiki The science of inquiry, Pramana sastra the science of valid knowledge, Tattva-sastra the science of categories , Tarka sastra the science of reasoning , Vaddahrta the science of discussion and Phkkika sastra the science of sophism. Nyaya is chiefly concerned with Valid Knowledge and its source.The Nyayas Realism and the Vaishesika Atomistic Pluralism when put together is called the theory of everything. Hence Nyaya combined with Vaishesika can be called as The theory of everything in one word. Beginning from the vast universe to the atoms in the matter every thing was clearly explained by two great scientist of the ancient India, They are Kannada and Gautama. These people should be identified as scientist rather than sages. These two scientists and explained the major concepts regarding man, nature, society and science.. Their works are undoubtedly greatest contributions to the Mankind. Even when I entered the field of nyaya, I was amazed to see that how, these ancient scientists has coined the definition of Gravitation and Sound. It was mentioned that sound travels in the form of waves. Not only these the famous Newton 3rd law That every action has an equal and opposite reaction and the Einsteins concept of matter,I.e matter can neither be created nor destroyed was clearly explained. The name Kannada itself suggests that Atom -eater,He had done extensive research on the atoms and had a very scientific approach towards the universe. When I came through these concepts,I was really amazed, that how these people can formulate these postulates some 2600years ago. At the same time there are many lapses and misconceptions too, we do not know whether these were in the original texts or induced in between. Here I would like to mention one quote of the Famous economist of the ancient India- Pradipaha sarva vidyanam Upayaha sarva karmanam Asrayaha sarva dharmanam anvikishiko Matha!! This is the Quote of Kautilya the Great Philosopher who proposed theory on economy famously called artha sastra This means- Nyaya has ever been esteemed as lamp of all sciences, the resource for all the actions and the shelter of all virtues Of all the Nations in the world the Indians and Greeks appear to to have developed Logic and epistemology to large extent, Independently. except the Five membered Syllogism. Indian Logic is dated back to 6th century BC and the Greek logic originated in the fourth century BC though its germs can be traced a little earlier in the controversies of the sophist and Socrates . The Aristotle can be called the Gautama of Greece. The five membered syllogism is a gift from India to the Greeks.it is written in the history that the Indians meeting some foreign person at sweetadweepa had taught this syllogism to the Greeks.( controversies are there regarding this) Although the word Logic is being used as a synonym to Nyaya, but it is not Identical with it. Logic only covers some of the subjects of Nyaya. The Indian Logic and epistemologys development can be divided into three periods namely Ancient (650BC-100AD) Medieval (100AD-1200AD) Modern (From 1200 AD) Nyaya originated in the ancient period i.e before 650BC and there are many commentaries on the Nyaya and, some thousands of commentaries are there are on the Nyaya-Sutras of Gautama and at the same time there are many commentaries which actually misinterprets the Concepts of Nyaya. During the medieval period Navya-Nyaya had came into existence which had misinterpreted the many concepts of the Nyaya Philosophy and during the modern period there were many commentaries written on the Navya Nyaya, Thus totally ignoring the original Nyaya sutras(Tenets). But the Nyaya is unapproachable to the English speaking world as the texts are in Sanskrit Language and most of the translated texts are covering only the first part of the Nyaya and even those translations arent totally based on the concepts of manuscripts. The nyaya sutra contains five Adhyayas (books); each Adhyaya consists of Anhikas (chapters); each Anhika has a number of sutras (aphorisms). According to the standard method mentioned above Gautama has discussed his categories and subcategories in different parts of his work. The commentators follow his treatment. Generally this discussion involved refutation of contrary views. Since the commentators refer not only to such views as are mentioned by Gautama but also not only development the exposition tends to become complicated. In order to highlight the basic doctrines and arguments of the Naiyayakas(people who follow Nyaya) and opponents I have classified the themes of the nyaya sutra under the following main heads: central theme Theory of Cognition Concept of proof It is well known fact that the authors of Nyaya and vasihesika are Gautama and Kannada, it is difficult to say that whether the systems started separately or and being allied in general attitude and view point became mixed up in later ages or an original fund of floating Ideas. The word Nyaya popularly signifies right or justice,Hence the Nyaya sastra is the science of Right judgment or reasoning, the Chinese can-li and the Tibetans rigs-bstan-bcos as equivalents of the Sanskrit Nyaya-sastra, expresses exact the same meaning. In fact the Nyaya(Logic) was in course of time deservedly held in very high esteem. If it were allowed to follow its original course unimpeded by religious dogmas, it would have risen to the very height of perfection, Nevertheless the principles of Nyaya entering into the different systems of Philosophy gave them each its proper compactness and cogency just as Bacons Inductive method shaped the sciences and philosophies of a later age in a different country.it is however to be regretted that during the last five hundred years the Nyaya has been mixed up with Law(Smrirti,Rheotric(alanakara),Vedanta,etc) and thereby has hampered the growth of those branches of knowledge upon which it has grown up as a sort of parasite. But the subject is an never aging queen. The Concept Of Doubt in The Great Indian Philospohy Introduction Every school of philosophy in India has attempted a theory of knowledge on which its metaphysical and axiological structures are based. The ultimate goal of philosophizing, and for that matter of all human enterprises, is to realize perfection or fullest all round efflorescence of ones potentialities (moksha or nihsreyasa) as the summum bonum of life and existence. For this realization knowledge of reality (Tattvajnana) is essential and necessary prerequisite. So, a theory of knowledge is regarded as propaedeutic to a theory of reality because before knowing the reality one has to know knowledge itself. This requirement is grounded in the fact that to philosophize is to reflect on the nature of reality given in experience. Every experience is caused by and pertains to an object. This reference to an object can be cognitive or non-cognitive like emotive, volitional etc. A cognitive reference consists in revelation of an object (pakasa) or in making a cognizer aware of it. Though every cognitive reference reveals an object, there is always a possibility of going astray in this reference and there is no guarantee that it will adequately and faithfully reveals its objects. This possibility of error and doubt in cognitive reference necessitates an enquiry in to is veracity. The entire epistemological pursuit begins and centers round this task. So along with consideration of objects of knowledge (prameya) and modes of knowing (pramana) there has to be awareness abut error and doubt as well so that they can be eliminated. Need for evidencing knowledge:- A cognitive reference is cognition of an object in terms of its existence, nature, characteristics, relations and functions etc. It may reveal its objects as it is (yathartha) or different from what it is (ayathartha) or there may be lack of determination of this (samsaya). That cognition is knowledge which reveals its objects as it is, i.e. which is non-discordant (avisamvadaka) with its object. Such cognition is technically known as Valid cognition prama (pramana in some schools where no distinction is drawn between prama and pramana). All other varieties of cognition are treated as different from knowledge. In other words, only that cognition can claim the status of knowledge the non-discordances or truth of which is well established through adequate evidences. There has to be assuredness/indubitability (asamdigdhatva) with regard to the truth of that cognition. The truth of knowledge is to be established on the basis of cogent and convincing evidence known as pramana. Indian thinkers point out three essential components of knowledge. They are cognitive reference to an object (arthavisayakatva), exactitude of reference (yatharthatva) and indubitability (asamdigdhatva) about exactitude. The object must be real and not fictitious. The exactitude of reference means true apprehension of the object and indubitability means adducing adequate and sufficient evidence (s) for its truth. In this essay an attempt will be made to analyze the phenomenon of doubt in its diverse forms and facets and with different perspectives. The treatment is not confined to any one system of thought as the chief feature of Indian thought is {bahuuidhavada and the mode of philosophizing is Vade vade jayate tattvabodhab} Importance of doubt Doubting is very important in human life to avoid credulous nature leading to blind faith and dogmatic belief. That is why Lord Buddha used to advise pariksya madvacah grahyah'(Accept what I say only after proper inquiry). This is what Pyrroh said in respect of Stoics in ancient Greece. Vatsyayana, the commentator on the Nyayasutras, opines that inquiry or logical investigation begins only in respect of samsayite arthe (doubtful object of cognition), thought of course Jayanata, another Nyaya thinker, states that samsayamantarenapi inquiry can begin apart from doubt as well. The other factor can be jijnasa (inquisitiveness), sisadhayisa (will to prove), or pariprccha (questioning attitude). That is why in Indian epistemological thinking we find different approaches to paksa'(Subject) mainly discussed in the context of anumana(Inference). Need to eliminate doubt Though doubting is useful, persistent doubting is detrimental, as Yajnavalkya rightly says about persistent questioning in the Brhadaranyakopanisad. Doubting can be a starting point for rise of knowledge or for verification of knowledge. This is what the Bhagwadgita advised (Tadviddhi pranipatenapariprasnenesavaya) or Lord Buddha advised as stated earlier. But persistent doubt is harmful to mental peace (anistanivarana prasanga). That is why the Bhagvadgita says, Samsayatma Vinasyati$. In order to have unwavering acivity (niskampapravrtti) also resolution or elimination of doubt is necessary. So doubt should be initial and not final. Here a distinction can be drawn between cessation of doubt and elimination of doubt. Cessation of doubt is psychological and elimination of doubt is logical. Psychological satisfaction may lead to cessation but doubt may crop up again. Only logically there can be final elimination. This distinction becomes significant in context of the controversy between Udayana and Sriharsa and Sriharsa and Gangesa and we shall revert to it later on. A deeper analysis of this issue is really enlightening and outstanding contribution to epistemology. Some conceptual distinctions The theorizing about doubt is known as samsayavada in Sanskrit. Samsayavada (Skepticism) is to be distinguished from Ucchedavada (Nihilism). In Ucchedavada doubting leads to denial of possibility of acquiring knowledge. It can be brought under Vitanda{Cavil}. The Tattvoplavasinha of Jayarasi Bhatta belongs to this category. Likewise, skepticism is to be distinguished from Agyeyavada (Agnositism). The Neti Neti statement of the Upanisads can be subsumed under this. In Lokayata/Carvaka philosophers and in Bhrtrhari, the author of Vakyapadyi (II.32-35), we find Limited Skepticism. In Nagarjuna (Vigrahavyavartini and Madhyamikakarika) and Sriharsa (Khandanakhandakadya) we have Methodogical Skepticism. In the western thought we find several other verities of Samsayavada like Epistemological Skepticism of Descartes and Psychological Skepticism of Hume. One can find their parallels also in Indian thought referred to in the Pali Tripitakas. It has to be noted that the Lokayata Skepticism has provided tremendous impetus for the development of Nyaya and Buddhist epistemology. Likewise Sriharsas contribution can not be minimized in respect of Gangesas philosophy. It is not the objective of this essay to go into details of these multiple approaches and their inputs. Hence landing on the point Nature of doubt Gautama in the Nyayasutras has given a very precise and comprehensive definition of samsaya which needs cognizance and analysis. He defines it is follows: Samanekadharmapapatteuipattervipatterupaladhyanupalabdhyavyauyauasthtasca visheshapekhso vimarsah samsayah. It can be split as follows: Samanadharma Anekadharma Tayorupapatti Vipratipatti Upalabdhi Anupalabhi Auyauashasca Visheashapeksah Vimarsah The above definition can be explained as below: Doubt arises due to having conflicting notions about one and the same object. Here mind oscillates (dolayate) between two or more alternative characterizations of that object arising from the cognition of common qualities of two or more objects and non-cognition of specific qualities of that object. Due to intervention of memory (Prasastapada rightly brings in the role of memory) mutually incompatible notions are suggested simultaneously and there is no fixity on any one notion resulting in absence of firm-assuredness in any one. Here there is no assertion or denial of any one and hence there is no definite judgment. It is absence of assured cognition and oscillation between conflicting notions. Symbolically it can be put as It may be this or that or It may be this or that or none or something else. Now let us Know the difference between the Nyayas philosophical terms like Prama,Viparyaya,samsaya and anadhyvasaya Difference among prama, viparyaya, samsaya and anadhyvasaya: It may be useful to draw brief distinctions among some cognate epistemic terms stated above. Prama stands for a true cognition which carries certitude in its truth. It is uni-judgmental and well-evidenced. Viparyaya means a false judgment which was earlier taken to be true and later on its falsity is exposed on valid grounds and assuredness in its truth is withdrawn. It is also uni-judgmental. Samsaya is multi-judgmental and here there is no fixity on one single judgment. It is indecisive (anavadharanaka) Anadhyavasaya is incipient cognition. It is vague sensation. It is unripe cognition and non-judgmental. We may not call it as cognition at all. That is way in the Nyaya system it is not given cognizance. It is also different from pre-judgmental cognition known as nirvikalpaka pratyaksa in sanskrit. Samsaya is also to be distinguished from Iha accepted in the Jain tradition. {Likewise Pt. Badarinath Shukla in his Hindi Commentary on the Tarkabhasa of Kesavamisra has differentiated samsaya from samuccaya. But he regards sambhauana (probability) as a variety of samsaya. } Typology of doubt On different grounds there can be different classifications of doubt. One classification can be as follows: About the existence or absence of an object, e.g. whether a tumor is cancerous or not, or whether God exists or not etc. About properties of a substantive e.g, sound is eternal or not, or whether light traverses in the form of waves or corpuscles. About the presence of this or that object, e.g. whether it post or human. Here the alternatives can be two or more. The alternatives may all be false and this may necessitate further investigation. The alternatives may all be true in different contexts or from different perspectives. Or, only one alternative may be true and the rest false. It will be an interesting as well as rewarding exercise to work this out. The other typology is on the basis of type of pramana(valid knowledge. For example in the Nyaya system four types of pramanas are accepted and hence there can be four types of doubt pertaining to perceptual, inferential, testimonial and analogy-based identificational cognitions. Generating conditions of doubt Doubt may be generated by any defect in the causal collocation (karana samagri) of knowledge as follows Defective functioning of cognitive senses due to various reasons. Epistemological thinkers have discussed these factors in great depth. Doubt may be generated due to faulty intervention of memory Mental delusion or disturbance may cause doubt And finally absence of conclusive evidence may result in doubt. Role of Tarka in removal of doubt. We may now revent to the problem of elimination of doubt. Just as doubting is helpful in arriving at truth, removal of doubt is also equally needed. Doubt arises due to presentation of conflicting alternatives (kotis) which may be contrary or contradictory each one claiming truth. This leads to oscillation and indecision in mind. So doubt has to be overcome to remove the deadlock and unless this is done, knowledge cannot be arrived at. In the case of different pramanas there are different modus operandi. For example , in the case of perceptual and analogical cognitions repeated observation, controlled experiment, crucial evidence (vinigamaka) etc. are helpful. In testimonial cognition conscience may be helpful but it cannot provide logical elimination. The Purva Mimamsa system accept Codana for this purpose which is regarded as infallible. But this problem of elimination of doubt has been discussed threadbare in the context of anumana(Inference) and this needs some analysis. The Carvaka/Lokayata thinkers raised serious objection for accepting validity of anumana(inference). Bhartrhari gave a classical formulation to their objections. This was extended by Nagarjuna and Sriharsa in their own way. Though Udayana in Nyayakusumanjali (Chapter III) and Santaraksita in Tattvasamgraha (1481-3) try their best to answer Carvaka/Lokayata objections, their replies have not been logically satisfactory. Any recourse to tarka or kalpana does not satisfy logical requirements. Udayanas arguments have been responded be Sriharsa and Gangesas replies to Sriharsa have been infirm. One may even refer to Raghunathas commentary on Khandanakhadyakhadya for this . Tarka rests on contradiction and contradiction itself rests on tarka. This involves the fallacy of pititio principi. In fact no human experience is immune from doubt and Sahara, the Purva Mimamsa thinkers, are right in this. For empirical purposes epistemology works well ultimately it falls down. That is why Adi Samkara has put all pramanavyavahara under avidya following the Upanisads. The point is that only on psychological grounds doubt can be resolved and there can not be logical elimination of doubt. The devil of doubt will always haunt human cognitive enterprises and we have to put up with that. But this is not pessimism but a warning to be vigilant. We do need epistemological inquiries but we have to be cautious and on the guard.

Meet The World :: Japan Japanese Culture Cultural Essays

Meet The World Have you stayed in other countries or met the people who have different cultures from yours? Yes, I have. I stayed in England for a year, and I have been living in the U.S for seven months. I went to two different English schools when I was in England. All students were of course from outside of England. Most of them were from Europe which is Spain, Italy and so on. Others were from the Far East like Korea, Thailand and Japan. I even met a few people who are sons of millionaires from East Asia such as Saudi Arabia and Jordan. When I was in Chicago, I met people who were from Korea, China and Mexico. As you know, I met English and American people as well. I also made friends who were from other countries like Argentina, Brazil and all over the world. In addition, I experienced and learned lots of things from their cultures. Some cultures are totally different from my culture. They sometimes made me surprised, and I realize that I will never get accustomed to them. On the other hand, t he other cultures are very important for everyone to understand. To meet many people and to experience different cultures is how my life and my way of thinking have greatly changed. I think you might feel like traveling other countries! First of all, what I felt when I met people was they were very casual when communicating with other people. Their actions seemed to lazy to me though. For example, I saw them in my class in the U.S. Students eat snacks, drink juice, and put their legs on the desk during the class! They go out of a classroom without asking the teacher. It was my first culture shock. In Japan, we have to respect teachers, so we must not drink, eat, or put legs on desks. We do not learn such things. In contrast, we have already known good manners. My second example is, people especially Europeans hug, kiss cheeks and shake hands. When I first went to England, I was a high school student. I was so nervous when I had to hug and kiss men! But I got used to doing that soon. Besides, I noticed that most of Europeans kiss twice to each cheek, but Swiss people kiss three times. To shake hands became a custom among the young Japanese.

Revolutions Around the World Essay -- History, Intellectual Innovation

During the late eighteenth century and the early nineteenth century, the colonies of the New World, and countries of the Old World, were undergoing revolutions and reforms. In North America, the United States created an economic and political powerhouse; the modern world’s first major nation to become a democracy. The Haitian Rebellion dramatically inspired other slaves and people to rise above government and be given the rights to freedom. The French Revolution practically destroyed its earlier absolute monarchy and caused the people to fight for social and political systems that treated them fairly and gave them more voice in government. The ideas and responses to the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions illustrate political uprisings in each government, change in social autonomy and a newfound sense of pride, along with intellectual shift and innovations. An additional document that would help analyze these revolutions would be a written document about a person’ s account and emotional insight to what it was like living during a revolution. A major thought for these revolutions was that the people of these regions wanted to formulate a new government in which it would grant more people freedom and would be actually able to listen to the people. In British periodicals, illustrations display British Officials being tarred and feathered; a humiliating event for anyone (Doc 2). This represents the Americans’ public opinion towards political leaders of Britain and their demand for liberty and justice. The Declaration of Independence states that the United States wants a just government that listens to the voice of the people, and is made up of the people (Doc 3). The Declaration of Independence displays how the ideas of the p... ...people into joining the revolt and other countries thinking about rebellions and revolutions (Doc 6). The political uprisings, national pride and change in social statues, along with intellectual innovations were all ideas and responses to the revolutions. The ideas and the responses to these ideas were important factors in the outcome of these revolutions. Political up rise and search for liberty caused governments to be overthrown and fought against. A sense of equality, shift in social autonomy, and nationalism led to revolutions in France, America, and Haiti. The influences of intellectual ideas led to more people being involved in the revolutions of these regions. These revolutions change the world, causing the United States to become the world’s largest power, Haitian people to gain liberty, and absolute monarchy in France to be completely overthrown.

College Students Cheating on Exams Essay

In today’s age when you look at the word â€Å"Cheating†, you may find many different definitions or meanings. Whether you cheat at work; known as fraud, cheat at home; known as dishonesty, or at school, this act of conduct can lead to many consequences made by ones choice. Cheating as a word to me means to not follow rules or standards brought up as a person. As we focus today on students cheating, the first thing that comes to my mind is cheating on an exam. As much as we hate to believe it, students in these days have followed the path of trying to do anything to get that grade. I believe many students today are driven to cheat when there is too much emphasis to ace an exam from both parents and school staff. It’s difficult to dismiss why students cheat, but I think if you eliminate pressure, students are less likely to engage in such conduct. Cheating leads to breaking the rules in many cases. Sometimes cheating can also lead to students finding someone else to help take one another’. No matter how careful teachers or programs are designed to prevent it, students will always find ways to get around obstacles and cheat at one point. Students may think cheating on an exam might seem like an easy way for a student to get a good grade and get ahead in his or her career, but the end result is when students cheat on exams, everyone is affected in many ways. When a student cheats or decides to cheat on an exam, they forget to think about the consequences that occur as a result of the decision made. Have you ever stopped and thought of the different consequences that occur? Consequences can vary depending on the student getting caught cheating. Some professors may issue a grade of a zero as a standard consequence; other professors may report the cheating to school board depending on the kind of test taken. In most cases, the student will be put on academic probation for repeat offenses which can affect the student’s career development. The student may be able to get a job with more responsibilities and more pay, but they may not be able to keep it, or might even harm people. Whether the student’s career is medical assistant, a teacher, or a lawyer, the exams are supposed to show the level of knowledge required for them to perform well and how can one show that when they are cheating on studies or exams. Another consequence of students cheating is that students, who cheat and get caught, cause other current and future students who do not cheat to become penalized for honesty. When students cheat they change the rules of education in favor of themselves. At the same time changing rules for themselves also cause changing rules for those that choose not to cheat, end result at one point or another someone will be affected. When you think of cheating, the question you should ask yourself should be; â€Å"Are you willing to take a huge risk and possibly affect your future? † The end result to cheating is obviously not a good turnout that leads to many different wrong roads. Many people say once a cheater, always a cheater meanings if you cheat once, are you bound to cheat again or will you learn from your mistakes. On the basis of predictability of human conduct, when you think of exams your first perception would be who is going to cheat on the exam. There are many different reasons why people cheat, just as there are differences in individuals who may cheat. For some, cheating is a way of life, one may cheat for some relief and in other cases others may cheat and be caught off guard causing a momentary slipup, which in end result may never happen again. Now what causes a person to act in that behavior, and determine what caused that behavior. What factors lead a person to cheat is what many ask. Eventually one can make a change and not cheat again. I believe schools should organize speakers, programs and workshops in the framework of â€Å"helping a student to cope with stress†. As part of these programs, parents should be made aware of how they often teach their children to cheat by increasing the pressure or demonstrating that success is the ultimate value in life. Students need to learn that you can cheat your way through school, graduate without learning anything, then get a profession and cause another person to get hurt due to not knowing anything in school due to cheating. Next time if you should cheat to make that extra grade, think again because it may result in hurting yourself and your future or the future of others.